Phonics: Part 3: Background Information

Activity:
Read the following background information on the way the vocal apparatus makes the sounds of present day English. While it is not necessary to teach these terms to young children, understanding them can help you be a more effective teacher of phonics. For example, some children have trouble distinguishing between /f/ and /v/. If you ask them to place their fingers on their throat while they pronounce them, it is clear that /v/ is voiced and /f/ is unvoiced. Knowing this will also help you model the correct position of the vocal apparatus for children when teaching them the sounds.

CONSONANTS
All consonants may be classified as either voiced or voiceless. In articulating a voiced consonant, the vocal cords are vibrating. (The vibration may easily be felt by gripping the larynx--the "Adam's apple"--between the fingers and the thumb while articulating the consonant.) In articulating an unvoiced consonant, the vocal cords are not vibrating.
Present-Day English has several consonant pairs that are articulated alike except that one is voiced and the other is unvoiced. Some examples are the phoneme spelled b in bat (voiced) and the phoneme spelled p in pat (unvoiced); the phoneme spelled d in dab (voiced) and the phoneme spelled t in tab (unvoiced); the phoneme spelled th in this (voiced) and the phoneme spelled th in thistle (unvoiced).
Consonants may also be classified according to the manner of articulation and the point of articulation: that is, how and where the flow of air is stopped or impeded when the consonant is articulated. Thus, we get the following systems of classification. Click on the terms for further information.

MANNER OF ARTICULATION
Stops are consonants formed by completely stopping the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air. Since the sudden release of the pent-up air creates a small explosive sound, stops are also called plosives. Stops may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the stop) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the stop). Here is a list of the stops in Present-Day English.
1. /p/ (the phoneme spelled p in pat): voiceless bilabial stop.
2. /b/ (the phoneme spelled b in bat): voiced bilabial stop.
3. /t/ (the phoneme spelled t in tot): voiceless alveolar stop.
4. /d/ (the phoneme spelled d in dot): voiced alveolar stop.
5. /k/ (the phoneme spelled c in cap): voiceless velar stop.
6. /g/ (the phoneme spelled g in gap): voiced velar stop.

Affricates are consonants that are formed by stopping the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air relatively slowly so that a friction-sound is produced. Present-Day English has only two affricates, one of which is voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the affricate) and one of which is voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the affricate).
1. /c</ (the phoneme spelled ch in chip): voiceless alveopalatal affricate.
2. /j</ (the phoneme spelled g in gyp): voiced alveopalatal affricate.

Fricatives are consonants that are formed by impeding the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus so that a friction-sound is produced. Because of the way the flow of breath is heard in producing fricatives, fricatives are also called spirants. Fricatives may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the fricative) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the fricative). Here is a list of the fricatives in Present-Day English.
1. /f/ (the phoneme spelled f in fine): voiceless labiodental fricative.
2. /v/ (the phoneme spelled v in vine): voiced labiodental fricative.
3. /q/ (the phoneme spelled th in thistle): voiceless interdental fricative.
4. /ð/ (the phoneme spelled th in this): voiced interdental fricative.
5. /s/ (the phoneme spelled s in sue): voiceless alveolar fricative.
6. /z/ (the phoneme spelled z in zoo): voiced alveolar fricative.
7. /s</ (the phoneme spelled sh in shore): voiceless alveopalatal fricative.
8. /z</ (the phoneme spelled z in azure): voiced alveopalatal fricative.
9. /h/ (the phoneme spelled h in hot): voiceless fricative, produced at various points depending upon the vowels in the vicinity. For example, in hot, /h/ is velar, whereas in heat, /h/ is alveopalatal.

Nasals are consonants that are formed by blocking the oral passage and allowing the air to escape through the nose. Present-Day English has three nasals, all of which are voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the nasal). (The nasals, the lateral /l/, the retroflex /r/, and the semivowels /w/ and /j/ are sometimes called the resonants.)
1. /m/ (the phoneme spelled m in mail): (voiced) bilabial nasal.
2. /n/ (the phoneme spelled n in nail): (voiced) alveolar nasal.
3. /h/ (the phoneme spelled ng in sing): (voiced) velar nasal.

Laterals are consonants formed by allowing the air to escape around the sides of the tongue. Present-Day English has only one lateral, which is voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the lateral). (The lateral, the nasals, the retroflex /r/, and the semivowels /w/ and /j/ are sometimes called the resonants.)

1. /l/ (the phoneme spelled l in let): (voiced) alveolar lateral.

Retroflex—A retroflex is a consonant formed when the tongue rises toward the roof of the mouth and then retracts toward the back of the oral cavity. Present-Day English has one retroflex, which is voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the retroflex). (The retroflex, the lateral /l/, the nasals, and the semivowels /w/ and /j/ are sometimes called the resonants.)
1. /r/ (the phoneme spelled r in root): (voiced) alveolar retroflex.

Semivowels are vowel-like consonants: that is, the air-flow is not stopped or impeded so as to cause a friction-sound, but the aperture through which the air passes is smaller than the aperture of any vowel. Also, in forming words, semivowels appear in positions where consonants normally appear. Present-Day English has two semivowels, both of which are voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the nasal). (The semivowels, the lateral /l/, the retroflex /r/, and the nasals are sometimes called the resonants.)
1. /w/ (the phoneme spelled w in wet): (voiced) bilabial velar semivowel. (This phoneme is bilabial because it requires rounding of both lips; it is velar because the back of the tongue rises toward the velum when the phoneme is articulated.)
2. /j/ (the phoneme spelled y in yard): (voiced) alveopalatal semivowel.

POINT OF ARTICULATION
Bilabials are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. Bilabials may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). Here is a list of the bilabials in Present-Day English.
1. /p/ (the phoneme spelled p in pat): voiceless bilabial stop.
2. /b/ (the phoneme spelled b in bat): voiced bilabial stop.
3. /m/ (the phoneme spelled m in mail): (voiced) bilabial nasal.
4. /w/ (the phoneme spelled w in wet): (voiced) bilabial semivowel.

Labiodentals are consonants for which the flow of air is restricted by the lips and teeth. Labiodentals may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). There are two labiodentals in Present-Day English.
1. /f/ (the phoneme spelled f in fine): voiceless labiodental fricative.
2. /v/ (the phoneme spelled v in vine): voiced labiodental fricative.

Interdentals are consonants for which the flow of air is restricted by catching the tongue between the teeth. Interdentals may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). There are two interdentals in Present-Day English.
1. /q/ (the phoneme spelled th in thistle): voiceless interdental fricative.
2. /ð/ (the phoneme spelled th in this): voiced interdental fricative.

Alveolars are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or impeded by creating a block or a small aperture between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. Alveolars may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). Here is a list of the alveolars in Present-Day English.
1. /t/ (the phoneme spelled t in tot): voiceless alveolar stop.
2. /d/ (the phoneme spelled d in dot): voiced alveolar stop.
3. /s/ (the phoneme spelled s in sue): voiceless alveolar fricative.
4. /z/ (the phoneme spelled z in zoo): voiced alveolar fricative.
5. /n/ (the phoneme spelled n in nail): (voiced) alveolar nasal.
6. /l/ (the phoneme spelled l in let): (voiced) alveolar lateral.
7. /r/ (the phoneme spelled r in root): (voiced) alveolar retroflex.

Alveopalatals are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or impeded by creating a block or a small aperture between the tongue and the region of the hard palate just behind the alveolar ridge. Alveopalatals may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). Here is a list of the alveopalatals in Present-Day English.
1. /c</ (the phoneme spelled ch in chip): voiceless alveopalatal affricate.
2. /j</ (the phoneme spelled g in gyp): voiced alveopalatal affricate.
3. /s</ (the phoneme spelled sh in shore): voiceless alveopalatal fricative.
4. /z</ (the phoneme spelled z in azure): voiced alveopalatal fricative.
5. /j/ (the phoneme spelled y in yard): (voiced) alveopalatal semivowel.

Velars are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or impeded by creating a block or a small aperture between the tongue and the velum ("soft palate"). Velars may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). Here is a list of the velars in Present-Day English.
1. /k/ (the phoneme spelled c in cap): voiceless velar stop.
2. /g/ (the phoneme spelled g in gap): voiced velar stop.
3. /h/ (the phoneme spelled h in hot): voiceless velar fricative (in vicinity of back vowel).
4. /h/ (the phoneme spelled ng in sing): (voiced) velar nasal.
5. /w/ (the phoneme spelled w in wet): (voiced) velar (and bilabial) semivowel.

PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH CONSONANTS
Manner of Articulation Point of Articulation
Bilabial Labio-dental Inter-dental Alveolar Alveo-palatal Velar
Stops Voiceless
Voiced /p/
/b/
. . /t/
/d/
. /k/
/g/Affricates Voiceless
Voiced . . . . /c</
/j</
.
Fricatives Voiceless
Voiced . /f/
/v/
/q/
/ð/
/s/
/z/
/s</
/z</
/h/Nasals /m/
. . /n/
. /h/Lateral . . . /l/
. .
Retroflex . . . /r/
. .
Semivowels /w/
. . . /j/

VOWELS
Vowels may be classified as either rounded or unrounded, as either lax or tense, and as either long or short.
In articulating a rounded vowel, the lips are rounded. The rounded vowels of Present-Day English are:
1. /u/ (the phoneme spelled oo in food)
2. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put)
3. /o/ (the phoneme spelled oa in boat)
4. /ô/ (the phoneme spelled au in caught)

Note that there are different degrees of rounding in these different vowels. The other vowels of Present-Day English are unrounded.
In articulating a tense vowel, the tongue and other parts of the vocal apparatus are relatively tense. With a lax vowel, on the other hand, the muscles of the vocal apparatus are relatively loose. The lax vowels in Present-Day English are:

1. /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit)
2. /e/ (the phoneme spelled e in bet)
3. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put)
4. /ô/ (the phoneme spelled au in caught)

Note that the degree of tenseness varies considerably in these different vowels. The other vowels of Present-Day English are relatively tense (also in different degrees).
The distinction between long and short vowels cannot be illustrated in Present-Day English, because vowel-length is no longer "phonemic" for speakers of English. That is, there are no "minimal pairs" of words that differ only with respect to the length of a vowel, and so speakers of PDE typically do not "hear" differences in vowel length. The distinction between long and short vowels was presumably phonemic in Old English and Middle English. Vowel length is presumably a matter of duration: that is, how long the vowel-sound is sustained in its articulation.
Apart from the above distinctions, vowels may be classified according to the how far the tongue is from the roof of the mouth during articulation, and how far back in the oral cavity the vowel is articulated.
If the lower jaw is relatively low (that is, if the mouth is relatively widely open), the tongue will be relatively far from the roof of the mouth. Vowels for which the jaw is relatively low during articulation are called, unsurprisingly, low vowels; and vowels for which the jaw is relatively high (the mouth is more nearly closed) are called high vowels. This distinction can be appreciated, for example, by gripping the chin and successively articulating "ha-ha, hee-hee, ha-ha, hee-hee." The phoneme spelled a in ha is a low vowel, and the phoneme spelled ee in hee is a high vowel. The jaw can be felt to move up and down correspondingly.
A vibration is felt in the oral cavity when a vowel is articulated. If this vibration is felt toward the front of the cavity, say in the area of the alveolar ridge, the vowel is described as a front vowel. If the vibration is felt toward the back of the cavity, say in the area of the velum, the vowel is described as a back vowel. This distinction can be appreciated by successively articulating "ho-ho, hee-hee, ho-ho, hee-hee," and paying attention to where the vibration is felt most strongly in the oral cavity. The phoneme spelled o in ho is a back vowel, and the phoneme spelled ee in hee is a front vowel.
Thus, we get the following system of classification for vowels.

POSITION OF JAW
High—The high vowels of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated with the jaw relatively high--that is, with the mouth nearly closed.
1. /i/ (the phoneme spelled ee in beet): high front vowel.
2. /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit): high front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly lower and slightly further back than is the preceding vowel /i/.
3. /u/ (the phoneme spelled oo in food): high back vowel.
4. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put): high back vowel. This vowel is articulated slighter lower and slightly further forward than is the preceding vowel /u/.

Mid—The mid vowels of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated with the jaw approximately in the middle of its range of vertical motion--that is, with the mouth about half open.
1. /e/ (the phoneme spelled ai in bait): mid front vowel.
2. /e/ (the phoneme spelled e in bet): mid front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly lower and slightly further back than is the preceding vowel /e/.
3. /o/ (the phoneme spelled oa in boat): mid back vowel.
4. /ô/ (the phoneme spelled au in caught): mid back vowel. This vowel is articulated slighter lower and slightly further forward than is the preceding vowel /o/.
5. /'/ (the phoneme spelled u in but): mid central vowel.

Low—The low vowels of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated with the jaw relatively low --that is, with the mouth fully or almost fully open.
1. /æ/ (the phoneme spelled a in bat): low front vowel.
2. /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father): low central vowel.

POINT OF ARTICULATION
Front—The front vowels of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated near the front of the oral cavity.
1. /i/ (the phoneme spelled ee in beet): high front vowel.
2. /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit): high front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly further back and slightly lower than the preceding vowel /i/.
3. /e/ (the phoneme spelled ai in bait): mid front vowel.
4. /e/ (the phoneme spelled e in bet): mid front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly further back and slightly lower than the preceding vowel /e/.
5. /æ/ (the phoneme spelled a in bat): low front vowel.

Central—The central vowels of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated near the center of the vocal cavity.
1. /'/ (the phoneme spelled u in but): mid central vowel.
2. /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father): low central vowel.

Back—The back vowels of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated near the rear of the vocal cavity.
1. /u/ (the phoneme spelled oo in food): high back vowel.
2. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put): high back vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly further forward and slightly lower than is the preceding vowel /u/.
3. /o/ (the phoneme spelled oa in boat): mid back vowel.
4. /ô/ (the phoneme spelled au in caught): mid back vowel. This vowel is articulated slighter further forward and slightly lower than is the preceding vowel /o/.

Diphthongs are vowel-phonemes articulated with a glide from one vowel to another. There are three diphthongs in Present-Day English.
1. /aI/ (the phoneme spelled i in bite). In articulating this phoneme, a speaker begins by articulating /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father), and glides to /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit).
2. /aU/ (the phoneme spelled ou in house). In articulating this phoneme, a speaker begins by articulating /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father), and glides to /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put).
3. /ôI/ (the phoneme spelled oy in boy). In articulating this phoneme, a speaker begins by articulating /ô/ (the phoneme spelled au in caught), and glides to /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit).

Source: http://facweb.furman.edu/~wrogers/phonemes/